Research

This book explores the criminalisation of irregular migration in Europe. In particular, it investigates the meaning, purpose, and consequences of criminalising unauthorised entry and stay. From a theoretical perspective, the book adds to the debate on the persistence of irregular migration, despite governments’ attempts at deterring it, by taking an interdisciplinary approach that draws from international political economy and criminology. Using Italy and France as case studies, and relying on previously unreleased data and interviews, it argues that criminalisation has no effect on migratory flows, and that this is due to factors including the latter’s structural determinants and the likely creation of substitution effects. Furthermore, criminalisation is found to lead to adverse consequences, including by contributing to vicious cycles of irregularity and insecurity.

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This article focuses on the external dimension of migration policy (EXMIPO) in the EU member states (MSs), through a policy tool approach. It offers an analytical framework for conceptualizing MS EXMIPO, by (1) unpacking its tools and (2) understanding their relationship with EU‐level migration governance, as based on competition, convergence and complementarity. Empirically, it examines the case of Italy, building on an original dataset spanning over 30 years and 125 instruments. Through the Italian case, this article demonstrates that MSs have developed an intense external action at the bilateral level in the field of migration, which has expanded quantitatively and qualitatively, alongside (and despite) EU initiatives.

This article provides the first systematic and comprehensive analysis of the external dimension of Italy’s migration policy (EXMIPO) in the broader Mediterranean, over the past three decades. Building on an original dataset spanning over 30 years and 125 instruments, it investigates how and to what extent Italy cooperated with countries of origin and transit in the management of migration flows. The article argues that the external dimension of Italy’s migration policy is far richer than initially expected. From the immediate neighbourhood, Italy’s EXMIPO has gradually extended well beyond its geographical borders. If initially, it relied on a strategy of issue-linkage between quotas and return agreements, this gradually faded away in favour of more informal tools. Notably, governments’ political ideology did not play a key role in defining the direction of Italy’s EXMIPO tools. Instead, the evolving dynamics of migratory flows, and the pursuit of flexible tools to promptly address rising numbers, were crucial aspects behind the country’s external migration policy.

The article examines the European Union’s response to Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine in the field of migration, arguing that EU visa and refugee policies encompassed a distinctive foreign policy and soft power dimension. On one hand, by restricting visa policy for Russia, the EU signalled the delegitimization and isolation of the Kremlin. On the other hand, by adopting temporary protection for Ukrainians, it sent a clear message of support to Ukraine, while also portraying the EU as the defender of freedom and democracy. Through an analysis of EU documents released in the first month of the war, the article thus posits that both visa and refugee measures were employed as soft power tools, contributing to the juxtaposition of an aggressive and isolated Russia, against a responsible and united EU.

*Most-read article in Policy Studies of the last year.

This article proposes a heuristic framework to map the effects of war in terms of ripple and backwash, across a range of interconnected layers of societies. Through this framework, the article introduces a set of empirically rich and theoretically informed studies from across multiple disciplines which examine the first consequences of the war in Ukraine. Taken together, these studies show that the war has had deep and complex effects affecting human life; human development; economies; values and attitudes; policy and governance; and power distribution and relations around the world. 

The article examines the consequences of criminalising irregular migration in Italy and France, showing that this led to a two-fold feedback loop. On the one hand, by constructing a continuum between migrants and criminals, criminalisation enhanced a sense of insecurity among the domestic public. On the other hand, by giving foreigners in irregular situations a criminal record, it increased their reliance on underground networks to stay and work. Overall, this fostered demand for restrictive, yet counterproductive, policies, creating a vicious cycle of insecurity and irregularity.

Italy’s migration agreements with Libya in 2017 and Albania in 2023 serve as crucial cases for investigating how political parties in Europe position themselves on immigration policy. By comparing parties across the Italian political spectrum, this research assesses whether they have articulated distinct stances on the externalisation of migration in the two selected cases. A qualitative analysis of parliamentary debates reveals two dominant logics in party discourse: a security logic and a rights-oriented logic. These two logics can cut across party lines, particularly in times of crisis, with frequent references to the European Union (EU) as both an arena for Italy’s influence and a source of legitimacy.

While before winning power populist radical right (PRR) parties are often overtly against the European Union (EU) and its policies, once in government their position can change significantly. Their threats to leave the EU are frequently replaced by requests for greater EU involvement, particularly in economic and migration issues. This article introduces the Special Issue, unpacking PRR parties’ discourse and policies in relation to Europe, before and after gaining power. Specifically, this Introduction outlines key theoretical debates on populism, the policy positioning of PRR parties on migration, foreign policy and other issues before and after entering government, and their relationship with the EU. It then addresses the performance of PRR parties in the 2024 European Parliament elections, and provides an overview of the Special Issue.

This article serves as an introduction to the Critical Criminology special issue titled 'Critical engagements with gender, race and class in crimmigration controls'. After a reflection on the concept of 'crimmigration', its evolution and limitations, it presents the contribution of the special issue, and the individual articles. 

The article explores high-skilled migration from Turkey to Italy. Relying on interviews with 20 Turkish high-skilled migrants in Italy, the article investigates their motivations for migrating, current integration, and future aspirations. The article fidns little relevance for migrant networks, but high significance of economic factors. 

This article analyses the role of information in shaping potential migrants’ decisions on whether to migrate (irregularly) to Europe, in reference to current globalisation and populist dynamics. At first sight, both the diffusion of information and communication technologies, globally, and the strong emphasis on deterring unauthorised migration, in Europe, would suggest that potential migrants should detain relatively accurate knowledge of the sanctions associated to irregular entry and stay. Yet, available evidence seems to imply otherwise. Building upon primary and secondary sources, this article investigates the degree of information held by migrants aiming to reach European countries, and whether or not it plays a significant role in influencing their decisions.

This article investigates the role of uncertainty, in the context of the criminalisation of irregular entry and stay in Europe. Specifically, it examines the adoption and enforcement of the norm making irregular migration a crime in Italy and France, arguing that implementation has been highly uneven in both countries. While the roots of such uncertainty may be related to both legal and political aspects, and, ultimately, to the problematic nature of the criminalisation of irregular migration itself, its implications range beyond individual cases, potentially leading to counterproductive outcomes for both migrants and migration-reception systems.

War has been an ever-present feature of human existence. The analysis of wars has tended to focus on either their causes or the military and strategic consequences of a conflict. This book argues that war can have a much wider impact across layers of society that go beyond international boundaries. It presents a heuristic multi-disciplinary framework for analysing the ripple and backwash effects across five connected analytical layers around the world: material; human capabilities; economic; values belief and attitudes; policy and governance; and power. Through this framework, the book introduces a set of empirically rich and theoretically informed studies which examine the first consequences of the war in Ukraine following the invasion of Russia in February 2022. This multi-disciplinary approach shows that the effects of the war were much deeper and sustained.

In recent elections across the European Union, parties adopting an anti-immigration stance and making use of populist rhetoric have been gaining electoral breakthrough. Against this backdrop, and in order to contribute to a deeper understanding of the connections binding migration and populism dynamics in Europe, this volume aims to trigger a discussion on the causes and consequences of the rise of populism in Europe, and deconstruct the rhetorical frames it uses to depict migratory flows as an exceptional phenomenon.

While the changes and pressures brought about by globalisation greatly incentivise out-migration, including in its irregular forms, policy responses to unauthorised entries have often focused on measures based on deterrence. Indeed, deterrence has a notable appeal for policymakers, due to its ease of applicability in both explaining irregular migration and providing a solution to it. But can it be effective in curbing migratory flows? In this chapter, I propose a research framework to address this question, connecting the international political economy discussion of migration governance with the criminological understanding of deterrence. I analyse the key elements on which deterrence strategies rest, emphasising the role of legal and social costs. Finally, I identify four pitfalls of deterrence, including: communication and unconscious biases, the political dimension, the lack of positive incentives, and the availability of alternatives.

In the introduction to the volume, I draw an overview of the impact of populism on migration policy in Europe. I then focus on the way in which populist actors conceptualise migration, arguing instead for a structural view of the phenomenon. Finally, I outline the aim, structure and contributions of the volume. 

In 2009, the Italian Government introduced a new law to make irregular migration a crime. A decade later, the measure does not seem to have yielded notable impact on migration figures. Why did the criminalisation of irregular migration not bring about the expected outcomes? The chapter explores this through the lenses of the 'policy gap' hypothesis, distinguishing between discursive, implementation, and efficacy gaps. It also considers the consequences of the resulting policy gap, suggesting that the securitisation and politicisation of migration led to a self-reinforcing process in which the de-securitisation of migration is increasingly difficult to achieve.

How did Brexit affect migration to the UK? Did the country 'take back control'? This report examines the latest trends in migration to (and from) the UK, concerning both regular and irregular migration. 

The report (in Italian) explores the theme of citizenship: its acquisition, loss, and meaning. Specifically, the chapter 'Bangladesh: Stories of irregular flows, citizenship and new migrations' delves into the topic of 'onward migration' through the case of the Italo-Bangladeshi community in the UK, examining long term dynamics as well as recent developments including Brexit and Covid-19. 

The report maps Italy's cooperation efforts with key partner countries, on the topic of migration. After an overview of the main trends (introduction), it provides 14 country profiles, each of which details: (1) Key migratory trends from Country X to Italy; (2) Italy-Country X cooperation on migration; (3) Italy-Country X development cooperation; (4) EU-Country X cooperation on migration. 

While the introduction is in Italian, all country profiles are in English.

The report explores the phenomenon of 'onward migration', namely the movement from one country to another, in a two- or multi-step process. It does so by investigating the case of Italo-Bangladeshis relocating from Italy to the UK. What are the drivers of onward migration, and do they parallel those for primary migration? What role do networks play? What are the implications of Brexit and Covid-19, for the mobility of the studied community? Building on official statistics, interviews, and secondary data, the report conducts an extensive mapping of the Italo-Bangladeshi community in the UK. Moreover, it finds that, for the studied community, onward migration from Italy to the UK is often driven by aspirations for upward socio-economic mobility, particularly through better education and employment opportunities. Migrant networks also proved vital to facilitate the process of onward migration to the UK.

The English version starts at page 56.